The Grammar Logs -- Number Twenty-Six

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Grammar
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# 26

Question I'm back with some more sequence of tenses questions. (By the way, you did an outstanding job on the new entry on sequence of tense. It's the most complete treatment I have seen.)
Are these sentences incorrect?

"Two weeks ago the stock suffered a big drop, a drop from which it still has not recovered."
"Would you happen to know where he is?"
Don't these sentences violate the rule on sequence of tenses? [Main clause in past tense, dependent clause in present or present perfect?]
Second, could you provide me with a succinct definition of a general truth and some examples of use?
Third, if the main clause is in the present perfect, can't you use any tense in the dependent clause?

Have you met my brother who goes to Stanford?
Have you spoken to the singer who will perform on Monday?
Thanks again for you help. It is much appreciated.
Source & Date
of Question San Diego, California
20 August 1997
Grammar's
Response My section on Tense Sequence needs some more work, doesn't it? I didn't make it clear that those tables apply to situations wherein time is of the essence, in which actions and conditions take place over time. Otherwise, as long as the tense of the main clause's verb is neither past nor past perfect, your subordinate clause's verb can be any tense that will reflect your meaning (as you show above). If the verbs in your main clause are in the past or past perfect, however, the verb in the subordinate clause must also be in the past or past perfect. (The exception being when the subordinate clause expresses a "general truth":

In the 1950s, most English teachers still believed that a background in Latin is essential for an understanding of English.
Columbus somehow knew that the world is round.
The slaveowners shared the understanding that literacy among oppressed people is a dangerous thing.)
Thank you for coming back and causing me to fix that section. I hope it's more clear now.

Question I need information on direct and indirect objects. How do I determine which is which in a sentence? What is the definition for each? Your expert advice is greatly appreciated.
Source & Date
of Question Durango, Colorado
22 August 1997
Grammar's
Response Thank you for pointing out this sad state of affairs. I've added a section on Direct and Indirect Objects to our section on Definitions.
I hope this proves helpful. If you need more information, let me know.

Question In the sentence, "Contact me if you have any questions.", is the object "me" direct or indirect?
Source & Date
of Question Minneapolis, Minnesota
26 August 1997
Grammar's
Response "Me," in that sentence, would be a direct object. There are probably degrees to which one feels the directness, I suppose -- bless me, help me, contact me, hit me -- but, yes, "me" is the direct object in your example.

Question Using an acronym in the course of writing a letter or report. I know you should write out the full name of the acronym the first time it is used (i.e. Social Security Administration (SSA)), but what are the rules thereafter? I have always believed that continued use of the acronym within the same document was optional. An experienced secretary has recently told me that the rule she was told to follow was..... once you use it (the acronym) in a document, you CANNOT use the full written out title. This seems a little contrary to the thought that acronyms are for the convenience of the reader. I don't think the rule would be that acronym use is mandatory once it is started. I would like to think that I could revert back to the full written name at any time. A response to this question would be greatly appreciated
Source & Date
of Question Baltimore, Maryland
27 August 1997
Grammar's
Response I would like to agree with you on this, but the resources I have available suggest that your friend is right, that once you give the full name along with the acronym (or abbreviation) [eg. Social Security Administration (SSA)], then you ought to use one or the other, but not switch back and forth between the two. This is what I gather from the APA's Publication Manual and the Little, Brown Handbook. Both also suggest that if the abbreviated phrase or title is used only a few times, you should use the full term throughout your work anyway. The St. Martin's Handbook says that you can use the abbreviation by itself after its initial, explanatory use. The MLA Handbook doesn't speak to the matter. I like your idea of writing for the convenience of the reader, but it seems as though the real authorities on the matter (or the ones I have available anyway) would have us use only the acronym after its initial, explanatory use.

Question What is the correct way to indicate counting? As in a quote of someone counting repeatedly from one to three, or counting any sequence of numbers.
Source & Date
of Question Neosho, Missouri
27 August 1997
Grammar's
Response I have a feeling there is no one and only correct way of doing this. I would do it with periods myself, as commas don't seem to cut it. She counted by five's: "Five. Ten. Fifteen. Twenty." Or, if you wanted to impose a bit of pacing on it, you could slow it down with ellipses. She counted by five's:
"Five. . . . Ten. . . . Fifteen. . . . Twenty."
I guess we'll both be wondering until we see this actually done in a novel or something. What about a story or novel where they're doing a lot of countdowns for missile launchings, etc.?

Question When do you use "a" in a sentence and when do you use "an?" For example:

He arrived in a recreational vehicle.
He arrived in an RV.
I have always felt that you should use "an" before a vowel, but what if the abbreviation has a vowel sound? It sounds better to me read aloud, but I don't know if it's technically correct. Help me Grammar!
Source & Date
of Question Reno, Nevada
27 August 1997
Grammar's
Response You don't need help. You've got it right. Because RV actually begins with a vowel sound (you pronounce the letter "r" the same way you pronounce the word "are"), you would choose the a as the article before it. See our definition of articles for more help.

Question I understand that sentences can be very short.
For example: Run! Jump! Go!
What is the classification of such short sentences (if any)?
What about a sentence such as:
So there!
Is this a complete sentence? If not, what is it? Is this similar to other verbal commands or phrases? (e.g. So what? Yes. No.)
Thanks!
Source & Date
of Question Denver, Colorado
27 August 1997
Grammar's
Response That first set of sentences consists of all imperative sentences. The imperative "mood" is used when we give commands or orders or strong directives. The subject "you" is understood, but, yes, they are complete sentences. The other set of phrases are really interjections, not sentences. They can stand apart, in their own little sentence, if the tone in which they are spoken is strong enough to merit that (and that would certainly be true of "So there!"); otherwise, they would be connected to a sentence with a comma: "Yes, that is true." An interjection standing by itself -- or, for that matter, an imperative sentence -- would be a rare bird indeed in formal, academic prose.

Question What are Compound Predicates?
Source & Date
of Question Fort Myers, Florida
27 August 1997
Grammar's
Response A predicate is everything in a sentence except for the subject and any modifiers that go along with the subject. A compound predicate consists of two or more words connected to act as a unit: "The instructor graded the papers and submitted the grades." (Everything other than "The instructor" forms the compound predicate.)

Question 1 - How does the grammar complexity of English (in terms of tenses) compare with those of other languages, especially other Germanic languages, and the Romanic languages?
2 - With the spread of English over the continents, how great is the danger of "standard English" becoming a 'regionalized minority dialect'?
Source & Date
of Question Maghera, Co. L'derry, N. Ireland
30 August 1997
Grammar's
Response 1. My multi-lingual cousin and her husband tell me that there are more or less same number of tenses in English and the Romance languages, but as for morphology, English has fewer forms than Italian, say, or Spanish. As for mood, probably Romance lanuages use the subjunctive more than English. As far as irregular verbs go, that's probably a toss-up. English has a bad reputation as a langauge to learn, but I'm not convinced it's well deserved. English pronunciation is a pain, compared to Spanish and German, say, where what you see is what you get, but it's easier than French, I think. As far as verb tenses are concerned, it probably comes out even.
2. It will take decades to determine this. I remember when people were arguing that mass media in America would mean that regional dialect and accents would disappear. That hasn't happened, at least not yet, as a recent trip to Tennessee confirmed. As a potentially universal language (and the internet has certainly made English even more pervasive, not less so), English has a long history of cultural imperialism already, and can we say there are already ghettos of substandard usage or that standard English could someday soon become a minority dialect? It's a very interesting question, but I don't think we have the historical perspective, yet, to begin to answer it. At least I don't.

Question Hello. This "Ask Grammar" forum is great. I have a question about pronoun usage in sentences. I was told two years ago in college by my English professor that a pronoun used in a sentence must always refer to the noun that directly precedes it. Do you agree with this? Are there cases when this rule doesn't apply? My second question relates to my first question. Let me explain a bit. I am a religious education teacher, and I have been writing up short biographies about the saints. Is it necessary in a short biography of someone to keep repeating his/her name? Will the pronoun "he" or "she" suffice? In some of the biographies that I have written, the usage of the saint's name sounds a bit redundant. This redundancy, in my opinion, also makes the stories sound a bit childish. I am almost sure that my former English professor would say that it is inappropriate to use "he" and "she" because the reader doesn't know who "he" or "she" is. I would argue that if they are reading a biography about St. Martin, for example, the reader would know who "he" or "she" is referring to.
Source & Date
of Question Slinger, Wisconsin
1 September 1997
Grammar's
Response It would not be in the best interests of clarity to insist that pronous always refer to nouns, as antecedents, immediately before them. It is conceivable that there will be non-antecedent nouns and other things between the pronoun and its proper antecedent and yet it will be perfectly clear what the pronoun is referring to. That's the test here: it must be perfectly clear what a pronoun refers to. If there is even the slightest possibility of confusion on the reader's part, then you're better off repeating the noun itself. Reading fiction here is probably a better test than reading newspaper accounts: newspapers are so rigid about the possibility of misreading that they sometimes needlessly repeat a noun where a pronoun would suffice. Fiction is more apt to allow (if not to require) the reader's unconscious mind to cast backwards a bit to supply the noun a pronoun refers to.

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Question	I need information on direct and indirect objects. How do I determine which is which in a sentence? What is the definition for each? Your expert advice is greatly appreciated.
Source & Date of Question	Durango, Colorado 22 August 1997
Grammar's Response	Thank you for pointing out this sad state of affairs. I've added a section on Direct and Indirect Objects to our section on Definitions. I hope this proves helpful. If you need more information, let me know.

Question	What is the correct way to indicate counting? As in a quote of someone counting repeatedly from one to three, or counting any sequence of numbers.
Source & Date of Question	Neosho, Missouri 27 August 1997
Grammar's Response	I have a feeling there is no one and only correct way of doing this. I would do it with periods myself, as commas don't seem to cut it. She counted by five's: "Five. Ten. Fifteen. Twenty." Or, if you wanted to impose a bit of pacing on it, you could slow it down with ellipses. She counted by five's: "Five. . . . Ten. . . . Fifteen. . . . Twenty." I guess we'll both be wondering until we see this actually done in a novel or something. What about a story or novel where they're doing a lot of countdowns for missile launchings, etc.?

Question	When do you use "a" in a sentence and when do you use "an?" For example: He arrived in a recreational vehicle. He arrived in an RV. I have always felt that you should use "an" before a vowel, but what if the abbreviation has a vowel sound? It sounds better to me read aloud, but I don't know if it's technically correct. Help me Grammar!
Source & Date of Question	Reno, Nevada 27 August 1997
Grammar's Response	You don't need help. You've got it right. Because RV actually begins with a vowel sound (you pronounce the letter "r" the same way you pronounce the word "are"), you would choose the a as the article before it. See our definition of articles for more help.

Question	1 - How does the grammar complexity of English (in terms of tenses) compare with those of other languages, especially other Germanic languages, and the Romanic languages? 2 - With the spread of English over the continents, how great is the danger of "standard English" becoming a 'regionalized minority dialect'?
Source & Date of Question	Maghera, Co. L'derry, N. Ireland 30 August 1997
Grammar's Response	1. My multi-lingual cousin and her husband tell me that there are more or less same number of tenses in English and the Romance languages, but as for morphology, English has fewer forms than Italian, say, or Spanish. As for mood, probably Romance lanuages use the subjunctive more than English. As far as irregular verbs go, that's probably a toss-up. English has a bad reputation as a langauge to learn, but I'm not convinced it's well deserved. English pronunciation is a pain, compared to Spanish and German, say, where what you see is what you get, but it's easier than French, I think. As far as verb tenses are concerned, it probably comes out even. 2. It will take decades to determine this. I remember when people were arguing that mass media in America would mean that regional dialect and accents would disappear. That hasn't happened, at least not yet, as a recent trip to Tennessee confirmed. As a potentially universal language (and the internet has certainly made English even more pervasive, not less so), English has a long history of cultural imperialism already, and can we say there are already ghettos of substandard usage or that standard English could someday soon become a minority dialect? It's a very interesting question, but I don't think we have the historical perspective, yet, to begin to answer it. At least I don't.

Question	In the sentence, "Contact me if you have any questions.", is the object "me" direct or indirect?
Source & Date of Question	Minneapolis, Minnesota 26 August 1997
Grammar's Response	"Me," in that sentence, would be a direct object. There are probably degrees to which one feels the directness, I suppose -- bless me, help me, contact me, hit me -- but, yes, "me" is the direct object in your example.

Question	Using an acronym in the course of writing a letter or report. I know you should write out the full name of the acronym the first time it is used (i.e. Social Security Administration (SSA)), but what are the rules thereafter? I have always believed that continued use of the acronym within the same document was optional. An experienced secretary has recently told me that the rule she was told to follow was..... once you use it (the acronym) in a document, you CANNOT use the full written out title. This seems a little contrary to the thought that acronyms are for the convenience of the reader. I don't think the rule would be that acronym use is mandatory once it is started. I would like to think that I could revert back to the full written name at any time. A response to this question would be greatly appreciated
Source & Date of Question	Baltimore, Maryland 27 August 1997
Grammar's Response	I would like to agree with you on this, but the resources I have available suggest that your friend is right, that once you give the full name along with the acronym (or abbreviation) [eg. Social Security Administration (SSA)], then you ought to use one or the other, but not switch back and forth between the two. This is what I gather from the APA's Publication Manual and the Little, Brown Handbook. Both also suggest that if the abbreviated phrase or title is used only a few times, you should use the full term throughout your work anyway. The St. Martin's Handbook says that you can use the abbreviation by itself after its initial, explanatory use. The MLA Handbook doesn't speak to the matter. I like your idea of writing for the convenience of the reader, but it seems as though the real authorities on the matter (or the ones I have available anyway) would have us use only the acronym after its initial, explanatory use.

Question	What are Compound Predicates?
Source & Date of Question	Fort Myers, Florida 27 August 1997
Grammar's Response	A predicate is everything in a sentence except for the subject and any modifiers that go along with the subject. A compound predicate consists of two or more words connected to act as a unit: "The instructor graded the papers and submitted the grades." (Everything other than "The instructor" forms the compound predicate.)

Question	Hello. This "Ask Grammar" forum is great. I have a question about pronoun usage in sentences. I was told two years ago in college by my English professor that a pronoun used in a sentence must always refer to the noun that directly precedes it. Do you agree with this? Are there cases when this rule doesn't apply? My second question relates to my first question. Let me explain a bit. I am a religious education teacher, and I have been writing up short biographies about the saints. Is it necessary in a short biography of someone to keep repeating his/her name? Will the pronoun "he" or "she" suffice? In some of the biographies that I have written, the usage of the saint's name sounds a bit redundant. This redundancy, in my opinion, also makes the stories sound a bit childish. I am almost sure that my former English professor would say that it is inappropriate to use "he" and "she" because the reader doesn't know who "he" or "she" is. I would argue that if they are reading a biography about St. Martin, for example, the reader would know who "he" or "she" is referring to.
Source & Date of Question	Slinger, Wisconsin 1 September 1997
Grammar's Response	It would not be in the best interests of clarity to insist that pronous always refer to nouns, as antecedents, immediately before them. It is conceivable that there will be non-antecedent nouns and other things between the pronoun and its proper antecedent and yet it will be perfectly clear what the pronoun is referring to. That's the test here: it must be perfectly clear what a pronoun refers to. If there is even the slightest possibility of confusion on the reader's part, then you're better off repeating the noun itself. Reading fiction here is probably a better test than reading newspaper accounts: newspapers are so rigid about the possibility of misreading that they sometimes needlessly repeat a noun where a pronoun would suffice. Fiction is more apt to allow (if not to require) the reader's unconscious mind to cast backwards a bit to supply the noun a pronoun refers to.